The three basic forms, the square, the triangle, and the circle, are typified
by the four different directions in space. The character of the square is
horizontal and vertical, that of the triangle diagonal, and that of the circle
circular.
The derivations and possibilities of contrast residing in the characters of
the forms were studied in series of exercises. To awaken an
understanding of formal unity, compositions were created in the square,
triangular, and circular characters. Extensions of such exercises were
based on combinations of two or three characters. Then followed the
division of forms in the character of the square, the triangle, and the circle
(Fig 3).
Fig 3 Divisions of a square: horizontal, vertical and diagonal (College of
Arts and Crafts, Zurich, 1942)
The problem of proportions was examined in lines, planes and volumes.
Lines can be developed whose various sections are determined by ratios.
The sequence of these ratios can be varied. Proportions of 1:2:4:8:16:32
or 1: 3: 9:27:81 can be represented. The golden section and the
proportions of the harmonic triangle must be studied, and constructed and
contrasted as lines planes or volumes. The student learns that effects can
be achieved through contrasts in proportions, which no longer correspond
to the realities of the measurement. It is well known that a long form, when
contrasted with a short one, can appear much longer than it really is. Such
simultaneous changes in proportion can be judged only with perception;
they impart to the proportion an unreal dynamism, which the artist aims at
and takes advantage of in his work.
To bring vividly home to 8-10-year-olds the relativity of the effect of
proportions, Itten set them the following task: 'Place your hands on a sheet
of drawing paper and trace their outlines with a pencil. In addition to the
hand, draw in natural size an apple, a plum, two cherries, two redcurrants
and - on the hand - a fly.' The children found the correct proportions
without difficulty, because they had already experienced them. 'Now draw
me an elephant to go with the drawing!' In one voice the children replied
that this was impossible, as the sheet of paper was much too small. 'Is it
impossible to draw an elephant?' He asked. The children thought they
must take a fresh sheet. They took it, and he continued with the
instructions: 'Draw an old, huge elephant-add a young elephant, and the
keeper- he holds his hand out to the elephant- an apple is lying on the hand
- and a fly sitting on the apple!' 'But this is not possible either' cried the
children. 'Well, draw another elephant, and try to draw it so that it appears
very large and draw a small keeper with it. Can you see that the smallness
of the keeper makes the elephant appear larger?'
Exercises in variation and combination, too, serve to extend thinking. Four
matches can become a dynamic experience to students. These little
sticks ending in round heads are a source of a very large number of new
figure constellations through horizontal, vertical, or diagonal shifts,
rotations, reflections and glide reflections, inversions, intersections,
changes in proportion, in brightness, in darkness, and in colour, as well as
of combinations of these variations.
To produce a work of art, creative imagination should have many
possibilities to draw on. To find the simplest and clearest form, the
thinking, in terms of variations and combinations, must be developed by
means of exercises such as making variations and combinations of a line
motif built up of circular, square, and triangular elements.
If an area is to be divided formally, there are an unlimited number of
possibilities for doing it. In the chessboard, the perfect composition of a
plane, a single, repetitive form divides the area. Both the black and the
white squares are reductions of the form of the whole chessboard. Other
shapes, which can be used to divide an area completely, are the
rectangle, the rhombus, the triangle, and the equilateral hexagon. Starting
from one of these basic divisions one can find a large number of other
forms. The positive-negative congruent forms are the most precise means
of dividing an area. Knowledge of them strengthens and deepens the
students' logical thinking in terms of form.
Proper distribution of the accents in a composition largely decides the
pictorial effect. This applies not only to the fine arts, but also to ballet,
music, and poetry. The points of accent set up the tension between forces
in a picture and guide the viewer's eye. His glance moves from accent to
accent, and he perceives distances thereby and experiences
simultaneous line connections. These lines offer visual paths, which in turn
envelop form-figures, whose dimensional relations must be studied. Every
form has its specific points of accent. All such points situated on the axes
or diagonals of a form are effective points. When one of them dominates,
the viewer's eye will dwell on it longer than on the weaker secondary
points; the eye will again and again return to the main accent. A main
accent leads the viewer to the profound stillness of gazing, whereas
several points of equal strength call for the attention of the eye to move
between them, thus creating an experience of movement. It is also
possible to analyse accent points or accent points and lines from nature.
This also has a bearing on the geometrical, structural organization of the
picture plane, which connects points of accent and reinforces the
structure of the picture.
